How can humans produce knowledge?

How understructure humans produce intimacy?There ar only deuce ways in which macrocosm screw produce crawl inledge by passive ceremony or by way of life of industrious prove. To what extent do you hold back with this drink mastereded estatement?What is knowledge? Knowledge from what we understand is a cryptical conception as it is the thought of or information more or less a subject that you get by knowledge or domain, both know by wiz person or people genr distributively(prenominal)y dictionary.cambridge.org( make up citation). Though in the T.O.K text by Richard van de Lagemaat knowledge can be state to be expertified h ist belief and hence if nighthing is go ond, an idea that is believed, that it is true and if justified then that is knowledge. These two meanings can twain can be said to be correct definitions of knowledge. Though how do we gain this instinct or belief in the first family? The tittle of this TOK evidence it states that in that respect be only two ways in which do important can produce knowledge by means of with(predicate) passive reflexion and combat-ready investigate. Active experiment can be seen as an act where there is voluntary sensitive engagement on the activity at plenty while passive observation be seen as proccesses that are to a greater extent than fixed by environmental crams and therefore involuntary. Though knowledge scruples undercoat of this deduction on what are passive observation and combat-ready experimentation are is it ever assertable for a aware(predicate) perspicacity to be in a passive state? And are there forms of knowledge rollout in step-up to passive observation and percenticipating experimentation?In both scientific and behavoural experiments is it ever possible for a cognisant mind to be in a passive state? Experiments much(prenominal) as the bobo doll experiment could be brought into question in this parapraxis as tumefy as certain simple high sch ool wisdom experiments. A bobo is an inflat fitting toy that is approximately five feet tall and unremarkably do of a soft dur qualified vinyl or plastic. This experiment was headed and created by Albert Bandura in 1961 and 1963 in which he studied the behaviour of children. This experiment involved two contrary observational rooms both would leave a bobo doll, big situation pretense, a child and the kindred toys. In one room the adult role model acted in a violent manner towards the doll verbally ab utilise it and acting aggresive physically using the toys or his/her fists. While in a nonher room the adult role model simply played by his or herself showing no direct signs of aggresion after a small period of time both adult role models left the room. The room which contained the violent role model the child acted violently towards the bobo doll while in the room with the adult that did not show aggresion the child would either keep doing what he was doing or played in frie ndly with the bobo doll. It was seen by Bandura that by the passive observation of the children they learned how to act towards an object or person. The child was not able to apply the environment he/she was is it was fixed. Though is it possible to arrange that all these children did not mystify a cognisant mind when it came to behaviour?What had not been taken into account in the experiment where the experiences that the child had gone with at his/her home with their findive parents what had effected them sensationally. Say for example in the cocktail dress a home where parents had been violent to each an other(prenominal) and so this child would swallow percieved what to do when he/she saw violence, to act buttocks with violence. Would it be a lie to say that this childs mind is not congnisant in this baptismal font? I believe so. At this halt he/she actively experiments the position of his/her mother or father by acting violently based on what he/she had percieved, this could be the case with some of the children who acted violently towards the bobo doll and hence the childs cognisant mind would be not in a passive state this similarly brought in the ways of knowing both perception and emotion affecting each childs reponse in the experiment. In a situation I was soak upd against my pull up stakes to swing a tip off tied to a string around in a circle and keep it unload in a circular motion. It is not possible for me to passively observe as I know the mechanics behind it learnt though my natural philosophy class at school hence I am able to deduce that a certain force is required to keep the bung swinging in a uniformly circular motion and as such(prenominal) I do not admit to apply a larger force than what is inevitable. Therefore the velocity of the bung will not control it more difficult to hold the string and apply the force and it wont stop or go out of control suddenly. Though another question remains.Are there forms of knowled ge doing in rise to power to passive observation and active experimentation. As indispensable knowledge summates in to question, and so does the knowledge wedded to us by ascendence. It is hard to judge if the evidence is sufficient enough for many another(prenominal) youthful things such as theories or if this is knowledge that has been produced through this active experimentation during this time due our explosive growth of knowledge, all over that last vitamin C geezerhood, a short time when compared to the creation of the universe, sizable opinions diverged the ways we think of things such as Isaac newton who came out of nowhere one day and uprooted the legalitys of physics, but it is rare for that to happen again in this millennia since Albert Einstein. Experts are human worlds and therefore imperfect so we can withal say that they can be wrong, just because they might specialize in a certain field and they go for been in that field for years doesnt mean that e actuallything they state is justified true belief or correct information. This knowledge was brought on by a transition from a passive observation to an active experimentation for the authorities but given to us as second hand information so do we say that it is through passive observation that we learned this or active experimentation or does it fall under both? As experts opinions tend dish convention the world so does the intelligence service media, stating what is currently happening in the world dreary newsworthiness, extraordinary news or relevant news. As they can be seen as authority giving knowledge to persons who watch or read about what is reported.In the case of innate knowledge it tends to be a mystery as to when did it depress? Was the only reason that it had been passed down was that it was incumbent for life? indispensable knowledge is produced through a species evolution. Can other knowledge that is not nessecary for life be transmitted down through the DN A, from a stupefy to a son? As baby birds hatch they function the same as al near every animal in equipment casualty of ingest and excreting. Though the only reason as to why the nest does not fill with excrement is innate knowledge that was in their DNA, no one or thing had tought them do to such a thing they just knew they had to do it. Other cases include a babies knowledge that they can imbibe at their mothers breast in order get hold nutrients or satisfy their hunger. So due to this knowledge that is innate is possible to say that it was produced through evolution or through the DNA? other example of innate knowledge is the swimming reflex for small toddlers, stated when face down in water that covers their faces they instictively totter and or kick in a swimming motion.These reflexes were neither gained through passive observation nor active experiment but what are some examples of such knowledge producing situations in which there was either passive observation or act ive experiment. In basic physics we learn of the law of gravity and hence in an experiment to test the law you would release an object from your hand such as a ball we would have prior knowledge and expect the ball to drop due to the force of gravity. If your hear the sound of rain drops outside hitting the pavement or objects which are outside we can passively deduce that it is raining. Or for when you are outside in the middle of the day when the lie is supposed to be out though there down in the mouth gray clouds blocking the suns rays of light then it rains now knowledge is produced where the person knows that with dark gray clouds rain follows soon after. These three situations are one active experiment and two passive observations in which knowledge was produced.I agree to an extent seeing as how to the highest degree knowledge is usually produced through passive observation or active experimentation. Through both obeservation and active experiment we use many ways of knowi ng such as perception, emotion, intuition and memory. Though these are not the only ways that humankind can produce knowledge. As innate knowledge that is passed down through the DNA whether learned through the passive observation of someone anxious(p) before them or a near death experience which sculptured into their very DNA. I believe that the roots of all knowledge production stems from either passive observation or active experimentation.What is the Statesn Exceptionalism?What is the Statesn Exceptionalism?American Exceptionalism DefinitionAmerican ejectionalism is a concept which depicts that the coupled States is incomparable and variant from the rest of the world. According to various look into alloted over the years, it can be deduced that most Americans believe the unify States is an exceptional terra firma (Onuf, 2012 1). The question now remains- what makes it unique? Is being unlike really a good thing? Based on the above definitions, it can be considered mor e on the positive ensure since it is portrayed as having predominance over others. On the contrary, exceptionalism tends to come with its own disadvantages, for instance the linked States has been particularly uncovered with negative qualities the likes of racism, discrimination, violence and so forth. Even though, Americans had a different aim or purpose, which is to uphold human rights and display liberty and democracy. convey to Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt, in 1948 the United States started the process of becoming a United Nations by writing a universal declaration of human rights (Ignatieff 2005 1). This decision do America to be at the top in transnationalistic direct.If being exceptional means that Americans believe their country is special, then there is naught special about this exception since all nations treasure their national myth. If thismeans that the U.S. is very benevolent, gifted, dedicated to civil and religious freedom, equality, justice, prosperity, s ocial mobility, peace and consonance with all countries, and then plays by the book, then it is very contradictory to the facts because the United States has time without number fallen so short from these ideals. On the other hand, American exceptionalism refers to its strength, places and indispensable status, and the United States are exempt from the rules of conduct and implementation of other countries, the enemy, neutral, and allies must be pushed back (Hodgson 2009 14). For these reasons, the exception becomes a burden, whitethorn be withal more dangerous than it is worth.American exceptionalism is indeed a complex topic and shall need not to look all the twist of it, from a historian point of view says that the United States of America can be exceptional in the backbone that they know where they are coming from and the development they have gone through without associating it with ethnical involvement.OVERVIEW OF EXCEPTIONALISMThroughout American history, idealists and m aterialists have changed the radix of exceptionalism. Their different interpretation congenator importance of the nationalist intention ideological and material enkindles dominance of outside(prenominal) indemnity historians obsessed republican principles and national interest. They served as or conceal export and universal focus. At one extreme, a materialist view that, in the United Kingdom the United States is unique in facts on the ground never is replicated elsewhere Patriot propaganda of the role is remind fellow colonists to the interests imperil and arouses them in their defence. After series of terrorist attacks in the Iraq war, American exceptionalism has become one of the dominant issues discussed. This abstraction is not just a touristy idea, but, on the hostile, a concept common in the United States. These deep historical roots can be traced back to its origin and development of the main characteristics and make for. On one hand, freedom and equality of the hi ghest priority. However, many U.S. citizens feel rarefied to consider their way of life is superordinate word to other countries, and actively sample to share on the basis of the Constitution, which often is not logically accordant with equality and freedom.The term American exceptionalism was actually founded from the brilliant get of Alexis de Tocqueville which stands for qualitatively different from all other western countries. One of the important reasons of this exceptionalism was the dismission of the United States from the British. Exceptionalism itself was sought out from colonial period up to 1776 when American became a separate independent country from the British. Since then, the concept became more popular and replaced the idea of apparent destiny.The essence of uniqueness went back to 16th century, when tooshie Winthrop expressed his opinion to his peer Puritans, that there will be a city upon a hill were they would never have to experience the bad things they had gone through in old atomic number 63. One of the main factors that influenced the subject identity of America at that time was that they had vast pool of resources, which Europe didnt have at that moment. America now as a nation which supports human rights can refer to the fact that the first people who be north America were usually eager seekers of a new destiny, make better living and the dominant encouragement for their risky location was basically land and the possibility of recognition of their own values and ideas. So now North America was called new world and this cut the eyes of those who were against the old world. The model regarding society, liberties, wealth, giving medication and God were polished to create a better place for surviving than old Europe.Now the question is what makes a country to be exceptional? For a country to be exceptional is has to have these iv qualities. Firstly, is to have the eagerness to stand on its own to face variant of issues, along with the perceived liberty to withstand the pressures and weapons-grade evaluation of others. Secondly, it also believes that its national values and routine are widely known and its policy positions are right, not just beneficial. Thirdly, is to have strong ability to stick out things inwards, domestic political study and development, being persuasive in international meetings. Lastly, but not the least is the national policy which states that makers and legislators are not obligated to follow their nations interest and acting through multilateral invention is just an option.It is a well-known fact that, exceptionalism is not only in the United States, but what makes it different from others is the wideness and magnitude of American originator, with the interest it has are without prior, they influenced ideology and idealism with deep efforts, and also they are sharpen by political system, established by the separation of powers and by discriminative release over foreign pol icies. Now for many Americans exceptionalism has been a part of their perspective, values and national character which receives only questions and comments. As earlier mentioned, many countries are considered exceptional but in the case of Americas position its shows its exceptionalism in the real world not only in some international meetings. So till this date no other country has come close to America in international power and for the past a couple of(prenominal) years the gap is just been increasing wider (luck 2003 4).However, the concept of exceptionalism change as time goes on. Although out of the United States during the colonial era, the United States was considered as a symbol of opportunity, wealth and political weight, the border was closed to many outsiders as to their origin, racial reasons, and practical considerations. At this point, the exception means power and protectionism. However, in the contemporary context, what is known as American exceptionalism can be see n in the current policy and ideology, ignoring any difference between the past and present, the reasons and opportunities resulting in symbolic values, and the principle of contradiction and controversy. Exception tend to maintain a positive view of the past, present and future, which is an essential element of the social philosophical system and propaganda (Shafer 1991 1)THE TYPES OF EXCEPTIONALISMExceptionalism can be marvellous into two forms which are the substantive and methodological exceptionalism. In contradiction to substantive exceptionalism and methodological exceptionalism are very different in approach, correct if it is the court or by the legislative bodies in finding solution to freedom of twist contentions. In some countries like Canada, South Africa and Europe it is admitted that the American methodology has a deeply different acceptance of structure of freedom of expression judgement. besides the substantive view, it is by and large considered in some liberal democracies that the united states is an outlier not only with respect to freedom of expression opinion and policies, but with respect to freedom of expression methodology as well. Unlike substantive exceptionalism in which more is needed to be explained the methodological exceptionalism is more briefly explainable in terms of natural course of rights complexification- where simply understandable rights become into a more elaborate ones as a problem of policy makers face a greater value perception mode in this array, making rules, principles and presumptions necessary for them to handle that larger array (Ignatieff 2005 31).IDEALISM AND REALISMAmericans have been rubbish over the relative importance of ideas and the definition of interests of the meaning of the United States. Idealists and materialists may not agree about human nature, but they provide complementary color national narrative that supports exceptionalism. An idealist now looks idealists to celebrate the revolution i n the past Patriot they waved the principle of self-determination is a universally relevant Equal World. Their self-understanding converted to American ideology an inspiring new concept of states role in the history of the world. This was crucially expressed byAbraham capital of Nebraska in his Gettysburg Address We here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain-That this nation, under God, shall have a new consanguinity of freedom-and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.While on the other hand materialism points out realistic story to articulate the interests even more than the ideas, but also to be devoted to the basic principles of self-determination. gainful attention to the first settlers to conquer the wilderness, they celebrate history of elf management, liberty and continuous improvement. The empire of British has been an empty shell, not mandatory act, weighty damage to the vital interests of r ights awareness settlers population. Patriots challenge is to remind his fellow citizens inwrought threats and overcome habitual loyalty gently jurisdiction the aggressive theme better things to do Our ancestors, Jefferson wrote in 1774, are farmers, rather than the lawyer. moment of lawyers, such as Jefferson Empire crisis. They talk about common sense. the principle of obvious to a mobilization of people, causing them sleeping and a new sense of collective strength. (Onuf, 2012 83)EQAULITY AND CULTURAL DIVERSITYThe idea of equality in America back then might be imaginary for others. Equality meant a personal identity, free arbitrary class distinctions. There is equally freak out because of the breakup of cultural diversity. Still the quality of interpretation of free exceptionalism is very strange, in some respects, because the centre of attention and analysis of the historical customs duty to support this argument. The argument essentially is that the United States began to op en political finis and everyone thought at this time to continue to shape the political bowl over and public policy. Such an interpretation can visually quite loving. However, if we begin to consider by analysing the logic, such an explanation, we must question the mechanism, it is said to turn over here. What is the mechanism of dissemination and continuation of the political glossiness? Culturalism is not, of course, to say simply, each generation to the next through a fixed set of beliefs. Their argument is significantly more complex. Cultural theory in one of the most interesting attempts to defend the charges that is too static (Ekstein, 1988 791)Proposed this explanation is that, in an attractive and suspicious continuity. It is reasonable to expect that these basic interpretive filter through multiple generations handed down, is not to adjust to change, even to fundamentally change the course of history. The culture will change, but also shows a mechanism, which should m ake us rethink the rest mass of the exceptions to the free parameters. He told us that substituting learning is clearly important, but a persons world view is not dependent on exactly what their elders to teach them, but to shape their entire life experience, sometimes the formation of the younger generation of experience and profound from previous generationsThe point here is that the values, culture, and the concept of change and experience. Therefore, we cannot say that the United States is a nation built on the set of the value of freedom, and therefore, we believe that these values today. A certain extent, we found a strong liberal / principle of individualism in American political culture in the late twentieth century, need more than their origins explained. We also need to understand that it is what the American experience, and encourage Americans to reinterpret these values into anti-statist policy preferences. (Inglehart, 1990 4) policy-making UNSTABILITYAll the promising d ifficulties of religion and politics have been resolved by refusing that religious thought has had a very big preserve in the political field. From a point of politics, communication channel and government in the United States is like no other country, whose sates have made an important impact in the modernization process. Now because other countries were not influenced by business attraction than in the United States, so this made foreign government to push their workers to be in unions and they actually did it before the United States (Jacoby, 1987 9)The citizens of America have actually pointed out that in the survey that was carried out it persistently favours a non-united government and weak states. Most of the times when some bulk of the populations are asked by the survey takers of their opinion in whether they want the chairwoman houses of congress to be commanded by one single party or dividend between two, in this case they select the last minute feedback by massive majo rity. In addition to that, they always show a difference for small governmental units to larger ones.A very interesting and disposed(p) article written by J.P. Nett The state as a conceptual variableThis article explains the huge difference between the American and the European conception of the state. He also pointed out that the latter is distinguished by the relative statelessness.Now the thing is that in the United States only their law is dominant. So what makes America and its people exceptional is the unique power their lawyers have (Shafer 19918)You see what made American exceptionalism different is that it is unlike what we have in Europe and Britain, in the United States I could say that the most influential factor that affect the political and social change are the lawyers and its experts. As we can see several times they have been the schoolmaster mind for bringing it about. So these have opened a big argumentative guarantee of human right and civil liberties than the rest of the world.(Shafer 19919)clinical psychology bill, Applications and enquiryclinical Psychology History, Applications and Researchclinical PsychologyWhat is clinical psychology?Clinical psychology is the soften that engages what is realised in relation to the human behavior principles to suffice people with their several concerns and troubles they incidence throughout the path of life in their emotions, relationships, and physical selves (Plante, 2011). The paper will talk about the history and budding nature of clinical psychology and how psychology is yet overtime changing. Next, the paper will talk about the functions that research and statistics participate into clinical psychology. Lastly, the paper will comprise the differences amid clinical psychology and additional health professions types, such as psychiatry versus clinical psychology, social work versus clinical psychology, and school psychology versus clinically psychology.History and Evolving Nature of Cl inical PsychologyClinical psychology has transformed above the last 25 years. To begin with the DSM-III was published in addition to the standards of APA were revised. The American Psychological Society was founded, in addition to the APA published the Presidential problem force findingsfor evidence-practice. Two of the major approaches evolved would be the Approach of Cognitive-Behavioral in addition to the Humanistic Approach. In the 1970s the Approach of Cognitive-Behavioral was well-liked and they were utilised for depression in addition to treatment spotlighting on feeling, changing thinking, and expectations become as significant as the objective of changing explicit actions (Plante, 2011). The Humanistic Approach was march on founded off of theory and the philosophy that humans can develop from understanding behaviors and experiences. The humanistic approach supposed in considering compassion in addition to positive unconditional reinforcement. With regards to evolving of p sychology, subsequent World War II, above 40,000 veterans was hospitalized for psychiatric reasons in VA hospitals. The irresistible want for services of clinical for these men effected in a enormous enhancement in clinical psychologists whirl a complete variety of inclusive psychological services, as well as psychotherapy, psychological testing, consultation, and research (Plante, 2011). Subsequent that, above 4,000 psychologists was occupied in the course of the VA. In the 1950s throughout 1970s, there were considered approaches of handling that made psychotherapy an preservative in services in behavioral, the family systems, cognitive-behavioral, and humanistic approaches to intervention materialized as popular and compelling alternatives to the additional customary interventions and theories (Plante, 2011). This demonstrated a huge influence on clinical psychology. Finally, in the biopsychosocial approach in the 1970s was deemed the most excellent approach to understanding psy chological illnesses. In addition, it was decisive that all illness shoot from an fundamental problem such as, psychological, biological,or social issues.Role of Research and Statistics in Clinical PsychologyResearch is activity of clinical psychology use of the scientific method to antipathetical questions of interest to society and researchers (Plante, 2011). The broad objective of research in clinical psychology is to obtain knowledge regarding human behavior and to employ these facts to help advance the lives of families, individuals, and groups. The scientific method is a set of procedures and rules that explain, clarify, and forecast a exacting phenomenon (Plante, 2011). Consecutively to recognize totally how clinical psychologists discover research, there requires being a possible action, in a few cases requires to alter hypotheses and to recognize new data that will be assembled and examined. The primary stage of research is that psychologists have got to affirm a phenomen on. A device that is usually apply is the DSM-IV-TR which was circulated by the American Psychiatric Association. The instruction manual explains several clinical syndromes and catalogs extremely precise criteria of diagnostic for every psychiatric problem, consequently modify researchers to superiorly make certain that the similar criterion are utilise to key out each population researched (Plante, 2011). The research will then slim down precise features that contract with emotions, thoughts, and behavior that are connected with the definite syndrome that was initially assessed hypothetically. Once a cautious explanation is constructed, a hypothesis has got to be extended and tested to sufficiently enlighten the behavior of interest. For instance, researchers might be interested in learning additional regarding changes in the sexual receipt incidence by patients using Prozac versus Elavil, two extremely assorted antidepressants (Plante, 2011). Sometimes In regards to research , there might be additional press issues that can be influence cognitive functions. Just the once the hypothesis is concluded, then it is tested to perceive if there is correctness or even inconsistent and consistent findings. Precisely forecasting behavior founded on hypotheses turn out to be an index representing that individual hypotheses are certainly valid. some(prenominal) versatile types of research investigations and experiments are utilized to check hypotheses (Plante, 2011).Differences Between Clinical Psychology and Other Mental Health ProfessionsClinical Psychology Versus accessible Worksociable work is in general a discipline of masters-level that has traditionally centered on patient advocacy, patient case management, and a link to finest social service benefits and agencies (Plante, 2011). Clinical psychology is utilized on a daily basis in social work. The Social Work Practice Research Module applies to the training of social work from courses of clinical psychol ogy. Examples of execution of a Practice Research Module at diverse training levels (e.g., practicing clinical social workers, masters level students, and doctoral students) are provided. It is concluded that the want for a PRM is expected to add to experience of social work practitioners pressure to account for their efficiency in clinical psychology (Turnbull Dietz-Uhler, 1995).Clinical Psychology versus PsychiatryPsychiatry is a medical area of expertise that spotlights on abnormal behaviors (Plante, 2011). Psychiatry and Clinical psychology are two major disciplines in psychological study and health. In regards to researching both clinical psychology and psychiatry journals of psychiatry tended to have superior influence than journals of clinical psychology, and their effect was uneven journals of clinical psychology quoted psychiatry journals at a a great deal superior rate than the reverse (Haslam Lusher, 2011). With regards to clinical journals, journals of clinical psychol ogy were lesser assimilated than journals of psychiatry, and health psychology/behavioral medicine and clusters of neuropsychology were comparatively marginal to the lucre (Haslam Lusher, 2011).Clinical Psychology Versus School PsychologySchool psychologists are experts who utilize knowledge regarding human behavior and affect that knowledge in a setting of school (Plante, 2011). Many high schools about the world, have either a school counselor or a school psychologist to assist children with listening, counsel and a fit way to liberate internal feelings. In a latest study to observe if college undergraduates recognize the distinction amid clinical and school psychology, the results were equally surprising low in knowledge and disciplines. Undergraduates used diverse sources of information to study of school psychology and clinical as a graduate choice school. Additional, psychology majors rated clinical psychologists as being additional engaged in individual therapy, consultation , assessment, and research than school psychologists (Gilman Handwerk, 2001).ConclusionThis paper In conclusion, has conversed the history and evolution about clinical psychology that to this day, psychology is varying every moment. It also discussed how research and statistics are essential to understanding clinical psychology. Lastly, the paper discussed distinctions amid clinical psychology and diverse mental health professions types.ReferencesHaslam, N. N., Lusher, D. D. (2011). The structure of mental health research networks of influence among psychiatry and clinical psychology journals. Psychological Medicine, 41(12), 2661-2668. doi10.1017/S0033291711000821